Cover
Vol. 3 No. 1 (2025)

Published: June 1, 2025

Pages: 1-12

Original Article

General review of Biotechnology Role of Production Genetic Modified Organisms

Zeina S. M. Al-Hadeithi 1
1Department of Clinical Labortary Science, College of pharmacy, Al-Nahrain University, Baghdad, Iraq
History
  • Received: February 25, 2025
  • Accepted: March 19, 2025
  • Available Online: June 1, 2025

Abstract

The area of Biotechnology has been both interesting and surprising from the beginning. At first, the scientists were filled with apprehension regarding the cessation of this technology's usage. It is more prudent to be cautious when making alterations to nature as the resulting outcomes remain unpredictable. Utilizing this innovative technology to enhance the nutritional value of food and combat illnesses is a logical approach. The process of creating GMOs involves extracting specific genes from one organism and inserting them into a different organism to generate modified living entities. This process usually gives the new organism specific traits that we want it to have. GMOs can be plants, animals, or enzymes that have been genetically modified. Some genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been given permission by government agencies to be used for business and to be eaten, while others are still being reviewed by these agencies. Some GMOs are still being tested in laboratories. Genetic modification or genetic engineering of organisms can be put into groups: Green genetic engineering, also known as agro-genetic engineering, is all about creating genetically modified plants for use in farming and food production , Genetic engineering in red/yellow is used in medicine, tests for genetics, and gene therapy, as well as to make drugs like insulin and vaccines , Bacteria or yeast: These micro-organisms are created by changing their genes to make them produce specific chemicals. The chemicals they produce are used in industries to make things like medicine or other products.

Keywords

References

  1. Sasson A. Medical Biotechnology: Achievements, Prospects and Perceptions. United Nations University Press; 2005. p. 152.
  2. Reynolds RW. Agricultural biotechnology: Opportunities and risks. USA Today. 1999; p. 54–6.
  3. United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (CEPAL). Opportunities and risks arising from the use of bioenergy for food security in Latin America. United Nations; 2007. p. 11.
  4. United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). Policy Brief: Implications for the use of biofuels with special reference to the Caribbean. LC/CAR/L.148. United Nations; 2007. p. 8.
  5. United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). Biotechnology: Origins and development in the Caribbean. LC/CAR/L.186. United Nations; 2008. p. 39.
  6. United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). Policy Brief: Biotechnology with special reference to the Caribbean. LC/CAR/L.184. United Nations; 2008. p. 11.
  7. United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). Biotechnology development and climate change in the Caribbean. Focus: Newsletter of the Caribbean Development and Cooperation Committee. 2009; Issue 2: p. 14.
  8. Al-Hadeithi ZSM. Using ISSR markers to build a phylogenetic of barley genotypes. Iraqi Journal of Science. 2015;56(2C):1682–8.
  9. Al-Hadeithi ZSM. Detection of genetic polymorphism in Iraqi barley using SSR-PCR analysis. Iraqi Journal of Science. 2016;57(2B):1158–64.
  10. Facts on GMOs in the EU. Available from: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/index_en.htm
  11. Belgian Biosafety Server. EU legislation. Available from: http://www.biosafety.ihe.be/Menu/BiosEur3.htm.
  12. European Union (EU). GMO releases and legislation. Available from: http://www.groundup.org/eugene.htm.
  13. SCADPlus. Genetically Modified Organisms. Available from: http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/scad_en.htm.
  14. Sticklen M. Plant genetic engineering to improve biomass characteristics for biofuels. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2005;17:315–9.
  15. Al-Hadeithi ZSM, Jasim SA. Study of plant genetic variation through molecular markers: An overview. J Pharm Res Int. 2021;33(45B):464–73.
  16. Al-Hadeithi ZSM, Jasim SA. Diagnosis of Hordeum vulgare genomic profile: Review. Asian Plant Res J. 2021;8(3):32–42.
  17. Ma JKC, Drake PMW, Christou P. The production of recombinant pharmaceutical proteins in plants. Nat Rev Genet. 2003;4:794–805.
  18. Conner AJ, Glare TR, Nap JP. The release of genetically modified crops into the environment part II. Plant J. 2003;33:19–46.
  19. Nap JP, Metz PLJ, Escaler M, Conner AJ. The release of genetically modified crops into the environment part I. Plant J. 2003;33:1–18.
  20. Melamed P, Gong ZY, Fletcher GL, Hew CL. The potential impact of modern biotechnology on fish aquaculture. Aquaculture. 2002;204:255–69.
  21. Berge GB, Baeverfjord G, Skrede A, Storebakken T. Bacterial protein grown on natural gas as protein source in diets for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in saltwater. Aquaculture. 2005;244(1–4):233–40.
  22. Mente E, Deguara S, Santos MB, Houlihan D. White muscle free amino acid concentrations following feeding a maize gluten dietary protein in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture. 2003;225(1–4):133–47.
  23. Ginn SL, Amaya AK, Alexander IE, Edelstein M, Abedi MR. Gene therapy clinical trials worldwide: An update. J Gene Med. 2017;e3015.
  24. Vulto AG, Stoner N, Balasova H, Cercos A, Hoppe-Tichy T, Genestar JL. European Association of Hospital Pharmacists (EAHP) guidance on the pharmacy handling of gene medicines. EJHP Pract. 2007;5:29–39.
  25. Stoner N. Are UK hospital pharmacy departments ready for the rise of gene therapy medicinal products? [editorial]. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2018;18:837–40.
  26. Therapeutic Goods Administration. Guidance 21: Medicines produced by genetic manipulation. 2013.
  27. Winslow LC, Kroll DJ. Herbs as medicines. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158:2192.
  28. Fischer R, Emans N. Molecular farming of pharmaceutical proteins. Transgen Res. 2000;9:279–99.
  29. Langer R. Drug delivery and targeting. Nature. 1998;392:5–10.
  30. Rabotyagova OS, Cebe P, Kaplan DL. Protein-based block copolymers. Biomacromolecules. 2011;12(2):269–89.
  31. Anib SM, Pastuszka MF, Aluri S. A quantitative recipe for engineering protein polymer nanoparticles. Polym Chem. 2014;5(5):1614–25.
  32. MacKay J, Chen M, McDaniel JR, Liu W, Simnick AJ, Chilkoti A. Self-assembling chimeric polypeptide-doxorubicin conjugate nanoparticles that abolish tumours after a single injection. Nat Mater. 2009;8(12):993–9.
  33. Uehler DC, Toso DB, Kickhoefer VA, Zhou ZH, Rome LH. Vaults engineered for hydrophobic drug delivery. Small. 2011;7(10):1432–9.
  34. Bartlett JMS, Stirling D. A short history of the polymerase chain reaction. Methods Mol Biol. 2003;226:3–6.
  35. Kleppe J. J Mol Biol. 1971;56:341–6.
  36. Saiki RK, Scharf S, Faloona F, Mullis KB, Horn GT, Erlich HA, Arnheim N. Enzymatic amplification of beta-globin genomic sequences and restriction site analysis for diagnosis of sickle cell anemia. Science. 1985;230(4732):1350.
  37. Erlich HA. PCR Technology: Principles and Applications for DNA Amplifications. New York: Stockton Press; 1989.
  38. Ochman H, Gerber AS, Hartl DL. Genetic applications of an inverse polymerase chain reaction. Genetics. 1988;120:621–3.
  39. Apfalter P, Blasi F, Boman J, Gaydos CA, Kundi M, Maass M, et al. Multicenter comparison trial of DNA extraction methods and PCR assays for detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae in endarterectomy specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2001;39:519–24.
  40. Al-Hadeithi ZSM, Jasim SA, Salahdin OD. Relation between resistance of Klebsiella pneumoniae to certain antibiotics and ESBL/PBP genes. 2022.
  41. Al-Hadeithi ZSM, Jasim SA, Salahdin OD. Detection and genotyping of papillomavirus by real-time PCR in Iraqi patients. J Arch Clin Infect Dis. 2022;7(3):e121143.
  42. Altpeter F, Springer NM, Bartley LE, Blechl AE, Brutnell TP, Citovsky V, et al. Advancing crop transformation in the era of genome editing. Plant Cell. 2016;28:1510–20. https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.16.00196.
  43. Morales-Rubio ME, Espinosa-Leal C, Garza-Padrón RA. Cultivo de tejidos vegetales y su aplicación en productos naturales. In: Rivas-Morales C, Oranday-Cardenas MA, Verde-Star MJ, editors. Investigación en plantas de importancia médica. 1st ed. Barcelona: Omnia Science; 2016. p. 351–410. https://doi.org/10.3926/oms.315.
  44. Gupta N, Prasad VB, Chattopadhyay S. LeMYC2 acts as a negative regulator of blue light-mediated photomorphogenic growth and promotes the growth of adult tomato plants. BMC Plant Biol. 2014;14(1):38.
  45. Nelson RS, McCormick SM, Delannay X, Dubé P, Layton J. Virus tolerance, plant performance of transgenic tomato plants expressing coat protein from tobacco mosaic virus. Nat Biotechnol. 1988;6(4):403–9.
  46. Kong K, Ntui VO, Makabe S, Khan RS, Mii M. Transgenic tobacco and tomato plants expressing Wasabi defensin genes driven by root-specific LjNRT2 and AtNRT2.1 promoters confer resistance against Fusarium oxysporum. Plant Biotechnol. 2014.
  47. Dangquan Z, Zhiyong Z, Turgay U, Baohong Z. CRISPR/Cas: A powerful tool for gene function study and crop improvement. Journal of Advanced Research. 2020;29:207–221.
  48. Thomas DR, Penney CA, Majumder A, Walmsley AM. Evolution of plant-made pharmaceuticals. Int J Mol Sci. 2011;12:3220–36. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms12053220.
  49. Yao J, Weng Y, Dickey A, Wang KY. Plants as factories for human pharmaceuticals: Applications and challenges. Int J Mol Sci. 2015;16:28549–65. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161226122.
  50. Tusé D, Tu T, McDonald KA. Manufacturing economics of plant-made biologics: Case studies in therapeutic and industrial enzymes. BioMol Res Int. 2014;1–16. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/256135.
  51. Czyz M, Dembczynski R, Marecik R, Pniewski T. Stability of S-HBsAg in long-term stored lyophilised plant tissue. Biologicals. 2016;44:69–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biologicals.2015.12.001.
  52. Su J, Zhu L, Sherman A, Wang X, Kamesh A, Norikane JH, et al. Low-cost industrial production of coagulation factor IX bioencapsulated in lettuce cells for oral tolerance induction in hemophilia B. Biomaterials. 2015;70:84–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.08.004.
  53. Pniewski T, Czyz M, Wyrwa K, Bociag P, Krajewski P, Kapusta J. Micropropagation of transgenic lettuce containing HBsAg as a method of mass-scale production of standardised plant material for biofarming purposes. Plant Cell Rep. 2017;36:49–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00299-016-2056-1.
  54. Altpeter F, Springer NM, Bartley LE, Blechl AE, Brutnell TP, Citovsky V, et al. Advancing crop transformation in the era of genome editing. Plant Cell. 2J016;28:1510–20. https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.16.00196.
  55. Ruth Espinosa García. European Parliament L-2929 Luxembourg DIRECTORATE-GENERAL FOR RESEARCH Directorate A: Medium- and long-term Research Division for Industry, Research, Energy, Environment and STOA. 2001. PE 309.707.
  56. Anliker B, Longhurs S, Bucholz CJ. Environmental risk assessment for medicinal products containing genetically modified organisms. Bundesgesundheitsbl. 2010;53:52–7.
  57. American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. ASHP guidelines on Handling Hazardous drugs. AM J Health-Syst Pharm. 2018;75:1996–2013.